Ecological systems theory (Bronfenbrenner) explains social development by placing the person inside five nested environments that influence behavior and mental processes. The microsystem is direct contact (family, school); the mesosystem is connections between those (e.g., parent–teacher interactions); the exosystem includes indirect influences (a parent's workplace); the macrosystem covers culture, laws, and social values; the chronosystem is timing—life stage or historical events. Together they show social development isn’t just parenting or peers alone but the whole context shaping attachment, identity, parenting styles, and peer relationships (CED 3.6.A.1, 3.6.A.3–A.5). For the AP exam, be ready to identify and give examples of each system and explain how they affect outcomes (e.g., ACEs in the exo/macrosystem). For review, see the Topic 3.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).

You get different attachment styles because attachment reflects a mix of caregiver behavior, the child’s temperament, and broader social influences. Sensitive, consistent caregiving usually leads to secure attachment; inconsistent or rejecting care can produce insecure-avoidant or insecure-anxious patterns, and frightening or disorganized caregiving can produce disorganized attachment (Harlow’s monkey work shows comfort matters more than food). Temperament shapes how easily a child forms bonds, and ecological systems (microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem) and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) change caregiving quality and stress, so culture and life stage also affect attachment. Early attachment often influences adult relationships (intimacy vs. isolation in Erikson) and shows up on the AP exam under Unit 3 content (Topic 3.6). Want a concise review? Check the Topic 3.6 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).

Authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive are three parenting styles researchers use to predict social-emotional outcomes. - Authoritarian: high control, low responsiveness. Rules are strict, parents expect obedience with little warmth or explanation. Kids tend to be obedient but may show lower self-esteem, poorer social skills, and more anxiety. - Authoritative: high control, high responsiveness. Parents set clear limits but are warm, explain rules, and encourage independence. This style is linked to the best outcomes on average—higher self-regulation, academic competence, and social skills. - Permissive: low control, high responsiveness. Parents are warm but give few rules or expectations. Kids often have good self-esteem but poorer impulse control, less responsibility, and weaker academic outcomes. Remember AP CED: cultural differences affect how these styles predict outcomes (3.6.A.2). You might get a question asking you to explain effects on behavior/mental processes—practice applying evidence and reasoning. For review, see the Topic 3.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl) and try practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).

Think of Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems like concentric circles around a person. - Microsystem: The people and places you directly interact with every day—family, friends, school, workplace. These have the strongest, most immediate influence on behavior and emotions (CED: “groups that have direct contact with the individual”). - Mesosystem: The connections between those microsystem parts—for example, how your parents’ relationship with your teachers affects you. It’s not a person itself but the quality of those relationships (CED: “relationships between groups in the microsystem”). - Exosystem: Settings that affect you indirectly—a parent’s workplace, school board decisions, neighborhood services. You don’t participate directly, but changes there still change your life (CED: “indirect factors”). On the AP exam, you might be asked to identify examples or explain how these systems influence development (Topic 3.6.A.1). For a quick review, see the Topic 3.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl). For broader Unit 3 review and practice Qs, use (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3) and (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).

Memorizing Erikson’s eight psychosocial stages is easier if you use a simple mnemonic + quick anchors (age + core conflict). Try this: Mnemonic (first words): Trust, Autonomy, Initiative, Industry, Identity, Intimacy, Generativity, Integrity—“Tiny Ants Invent Industrious Ideas In Giant Islands” (or make your own silly sentence). Quick anchors to drill (CED terms): - Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust (trust in caregiver) - Toddler: Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (independence) - Preschool: Initiative vs. Guilt (goal-directed play) - Elementary: Industry vs. Inferiority (competence at school) - Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion (identity formation) - Young adult: Intimacy vs. Isolation (close relationships) - Middle adult: Generativity vs. Stagnation (contributing/caring) - Older adult: Integrity vs. Despair (life review) Study tips: flashcards with stage name on one side, age/conflict/example on the other; quiz yourself in mixed order; link each stage to a research concept from Topic 3.6 (e.g., identity tied to identity achievement). For AP prep, practice multiple-choice and FRQ-style application questions (Unit 3 practice on Fiveable: study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl), unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3), and 1000+ practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new)).

Separation anxiety is when an infant or young child shows fear or distress when separated from a caregiver or around strangers—most common around 8–14 months as attachment bonds strengthen (CED Topic 3.6, 3.6.A.3.i). It reflects the child’s attachment style: securely attached kids usually cope better; insecure-anxious kids show stronger, more prolonged distress. Severity varies because of temperament (some babies are more reactive), caregiver sensitivity (consistent, responsive care → more secure attachment), parenting style and microsystem factors, prior adverse experiences (ACEs), and cultural expectations about independence. Classic Harlow work shows comfort matters more than food for forming secure bonds, which affects separation responses (CED 3.6.A.3.ii). For AP review, link these ideas to attachment types and Erikson’s trust vs. mistrust stage (CED 3.6.A.6). See the Topic 3.6 study guide for a concise summary (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl). For broader Unit 3 review and lots of practice Qs, check (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3) and (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).

Harlow’s cloth-mother experiments mattered because they showed attachment isn’t just about food (reinforcement)—it’s about comfort, warmth, and a secure base. Baby rhesus monkeys preferred a soft cloth “mother” over a wire mother that provided milk, especially when stressed. That finding supports the idea of secure attachment: infants seek closeness and comfort from caregivers to feel safe and explore (the microsystem). It also helped explain separation anxiety and why some kids develop insecure attachment (avoidant, anxious, disorganized) if comfort isn’t available. For AP Psych, Harlow’s work is a classic example you should cite when explaining attachment and early social-emotional development (see CED 3.6.A.3 and 3.6.A.3.i). Review the Topic 3.6 study guide on Fiveable for a quick recap (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new) to prep for MCQs and FRQs.

Parallel play = kids play side-by-side with similar toys but don’t really interact or coordinate—they’re near each other, copying or doing their own thing. It’s common around age 2 and shows early social awareness (microsystem/peer interaction in 3.6.A.4.i). Pretend (symbolic) play = children use objects or roles imaginatively (e.g., “tea party,” playing parent). This often becomes cooperative: kids share roles, negotiate rules, and practice perspective-taking and social skills (emerges ~2–4+). Pretend play is more advanced socially and ties to later empathy, theory of mind, and identity development in the CED. On the AP exam you might be asked to distinguish these as examples of peer interaction or social development (Topic 3.6). For quick review, check the Topic 3.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl) and try related practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).

Adolescent egocentrism is a teen’s tendency to focus on themselves and assume others are as focused on them as they are—it’s normal during identity development (CED 3.6.A.4, 3.6.A.8). Two common examples: - Imaginary audience: teens feel like they’re always “on stage,” believing peers notice and judge their appearance or behavior. This explains self-consciousness and why peer approval matters more in adolescence (peer relationships; CED 3.6.A.4). - Personal fable: teens think their experiences are unique and invulnerable (e.g., “No one understands me” or “I won’t get hurt”), which can increase risky behavior and emotional intensity. These concepts tie to identity development and peer influence on behavior—stuff you should recognize on multiple-choice and FRQ items about adolescent social-emotional development. For a quick AP-aligned review, check the Topic 3.6 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl). For practice questions, see Fiveable’s practice page (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).

Early attachment shapes your internal “working model” of relationships, which often carries into adulthood. Securely attached kids (comfort, responsive caregiving) tend to form trusting, low-anxiety adult relationships and seek intimacy (ties to Erikson’s intimacy vs. isolation). Insecure attachments show predictable patterns: avoidant kids become emotionally distant or uncomfortable with closeness; anxious (ambivalent) kids become clingy, worried about abandonment; disorganized attachment links to unpredictable or confused behavior with higher risk for relationship instability. Temperament and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) also influence these outcomes. On the AP exam, connect infant attachment types (secure, avoidant, anxious, disorganized) to later adult social development (3.6.A.3 & 3.6.A.5) and mention cultural/temperament variation. For review, see the Topic 3.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl), the unit overview (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3), and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are stressful or traumatic events in a child’s microsystem and broader environment—like physical/sexual/emotional abuse, neglect, or household dysfunction (parental substance use, mental illness, or incarceration). The CED notes ACEs affect relationships across the lifespan (Topic 3.6). They have long-term effects because chronic early stress (often called “toxic stress”) alters development: prolonged HPA-axis activation changes stress hormones, can affect brain structures involved in emotion and memory, and undermines secure attachment. That makes children more likely to form insecure attachments, have trouble regulating emotion, and face higher risk for mental-health issues, substance use, and relationship difficulties later on. Ecological systems (microsystem → exosystem → macrosystem, plus chronosystem) and Erikson’s psychosocial stages show how timing and context shape those outcomes. If you want to review ACEs and related topics for the AP exam, see the Topic 3.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl) and practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).

Think of identity development (Erikson → identity vs. role confusion; Marcia’s statuses) as two parts: exploration (trying out options) and commitment (choosing). The four statuses: - Identity achievement: high exploration + high commitment. You tried options (careers, values) and made a stable choice—strong sense of who you are. - Identity moratorium: high exploration + low commitment. You’re actively searching (taking different classes, questioning beliefs) but haven’t committed yet. - Identity foreclosure: low exploration + high commitment. You’ve committed (often to family expectations) without exploring alternatives. - Identity diffusion: low exploration + low commitment. No clear goals or attempts to explore—often confused or apathetic about identity. On the AP exam, expect these as short-definitions or scenario items tied to adolescence, culture, or “possible selves” (CED 3.6.A.8). For a quick review, see the Topic 3.6 study guide on Fiveable (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl). For more practice, use the unit review and 1,000+ practice problems (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new and https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).

Culture shapes beliefs, expectations, and institutions that tell people when they “should” be an adult—that’s the macrosystem/social clock in Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory (CED 3.6.A.1, 3.6.A.5.i). Different cultures value milestones (marriage, independent living, financial self-sufficiency, parenthood, completing education) differently, so the age tied to adulthood shifts. In some societies adulthood is marked by rites of passage or family roles early in life; in others, extended education and career exploration create a distinct “emerging adulthood” period into the mid-20s. Those cultural norms interact with microsystems (family, peers) and exosystem factors (economy, laws) to influence behavior and identity development (CED keywords: social clock, macrosystem, emerging adulthood). For AP exam study, know these ecological levels and that culture affects timing of life events—you can review Topic 3.6 study guide on Fiveable for quick examples and practice (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl).

Emerging adulthood is a proposed life stage (roughly ages 18–25) where people transition from adolescence to full adult roles: exploring identity, education/careers, relationships, and increased independence. In AP terms it ties to the chronosystem and the “social clock”—culture shapes when adult milestones (marriage, work, parenthood) are expected (CED 3.6.A.5.i). It’s not the same in all cultures: some societies have a clear, earlier social clock so people take on adult roles sooner; others (often with more educational and economic flexibility) allow a longer emerging-adulthood period. For the exam, be ready to explain how macrosystem/cultural norms affect timing of adulthood and identity processes (3.6.A.1, 3.6.A.5.i, 3.6.A.8). For a quick review, see the Topic 3.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).

Temperament is a baby’s biologically based style of reacting (e.g., easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up) and it interacts with caregiving to shape attachment. Babies with an “easy” temperament are more likely to form secure attachments when caregivers are responsive, while a very reactive or “difficult” temperament can make consistent caregiving harder and increase risk for insecure attachments (avoidant, anxious, or disorganized). Key idea: goodness-of-fit—when caregivers’ styles match a child’s temperament (consistent, sensitive responses), secure attachment and better social-emotional outcomes are more likely. Temperament doesn’t determine attachment alone; the microsystem (caregiver behavior) and culture also matter (CED 3.6.A.3). You should know this for MCQs and FRQs on attachment, separation anxiety, and how early experiences affect later relationships. For a quick AP-aligned review, see the Topic 3.6 study guide (https://library.fiveable.me/ap-psych-new/unit-3/6-social-emotional-development-across-the-lifespan/study-guide/aH1I1boUGnQd6QHl) and try practice questions (https://library.fiveable.me/practice/ap-psych-new).