🍖World Prehistory Unit 8 – Neolithic Near East and Europe

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Neolithic Revolution the transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settled life
• Domestication the process of adapting plants and animals for human use through selective breeding
  • Plant domestication (wheat, barley, lentils)
  • Animal domestication (sheep, goats, cattle)
• Megaliths large stone structures, often used for ritual or astronomical purposes (Stonehenge)
• Tell an artificial mound formed by the accumulation of debris from successive settlements
• Çatalhöyük a large Neolithic settlement in Anatolia known for its dense urban layout and symbolic artwork
• Fertile Crescent a region in the Near East with favorable conditions for early agriculture (Mesopotamia, Levant)

Timeline and Geographic Context

• Neolithic period began around 10,000 BCE in the Near East and lasted until the development of metallurgy
• Earliest evidence of agriculture dates to around 9,500 BCE in the Levant and Anatolia
• Neolithic way of life spread from the Near East to Europe, reaching the Balkans by 6,500 BCE and the British Isles by 4,000 BCE
• Key Neolithic sites in the Near East include Jericho, Ain Ghazal, and Göbekli Tepe
• In Europe, important Neolithic cultures include the Linear Pottery Culture (LBK) and the Megalithic cultures of Western Europe
• The Neolithic period ended at different times in various regions, depending on the adoption of bronze metallurgy

Transition to Agriculture

• Gradual process that occurred independently in multiple regions worldwide
• Factors contributing to the adoption of agriculture include climate change, population pressure, and cultural innovations
• The Younger Dryas (a cold, dry period from ~12,900 to 11,700 BP) may have encouraged the cultivation of plants in the Near East
• Early crops in the Near East included wheat, barley, lentils, and chickpeas
  • Domestication of these crops led to morphological changes (larger seeds, non-shattering seed heads)
• Animal domestication followed plant domestication, with sheep, goats, and cattle being among the first domesticates
• The adoption of agriculture had significant consequences for human societies, including population growth, sedentism, and social stratification

Technological Advancements

• Development of new stone tool technologies, such as ground stone tools and polished axes
• Invention of pottery for storage and cooking
  • Earliest pottery in the Near East dates to around 7,000 BCE
  • Pottery styles and decorations can serve as cultural markers and chronological indicators
• Advances in textile production, including the use of wool and linen
• Improvements in agricultural techniques (irrigation, plowing, crop rotation)
• Development of specialized crafts (metallurgy, carpentry)

Social and Cultural Developments

• Emergence of social stratification and inequality
  • Evidence for social differentiation in burial practices and housing
• Development of complex religious and symbolic systems
  • Figurines, wall paintings, and other artistic expressions (Çatalhöyük, Ain Ghazal)
  • Megalithic structures associated with astronomical events and ritual practices (Newgrange, Stonehenge)
• Changes in gender roles and division of labor
  • Women's roles in early agricultural societies (food processing, pottery production)
• Population growth and the formation of larger communities
• Intensification of warfare and conflict over resources

Settlement Patterns and Architecture

• Transition from mobile hunter-gatherer camps to permanent settlements
• Early Neolithic villages characterized by round, semi-subterranean houses (Jericho, Ain Ghazal)
• Later Neolithic settlements featured rectilinear, mudbrick architecture (Çatalhöyük)
  • Dense, agglutinated layout with houses accessed through roofs
  • Specialized areas for storage, cooking, and craft production
• Megalithic architecture in Europe (dolmens, passage graves, stone circles)
  • Often associated with collective burial practices and astronomical alignments
• Tell settlements in the Near East formed by the accumulation of debris from successive occupations

Trade and Exchange Networks

• Development of long-distance trade networks for the exchange of raw materials and finished goods
  • Obsidian, a volcanic glass prized for its sharp edges, was traded over long distances in the Near East and Anatolia
  • Spondylus shell from the Mediterranean was exchanged across Europe
• Trade in luxury goods (ornaments, textiles) as markers of social status
• Exchange of ideas, technologies, and cultural practices along trade routes
• Intensification of trade during the Late Neolithic, setting the stage for the Bronze Age

Environmental Impact and Adaptation

• Deforestation and land clearance for agriculture and settlement
  • Increased soil erosion and changes in local ecosystems
• Overgrazing by domesticated animals leading to vegetation changes
• Adaptations to diverse environments as agriculture spread beyond the Near East
  • Modifications in crop and animal species to suit local conditions
• Development of irrigation systems to manage water resources in arid regions (Mesopotamia)
• Climate fluctuations (Holocene Climatic Optimum, 6200 BCE event) affecting agricultural productivity and settlement patterns