🥵Thermodynamics Unit 1 – Thermodynamics: Introduction & Basics

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Thermodynamics studies the relationships between heat, work, temperature, and energy
• System refers to the specific part of the universe under study, while surroundings encompass everything outside the system
• State variables (pressure, volume, temperature) describe the current condition of a system
• Process involves the system changing from one state to another due to energy transfer as work or heat
• Thermal equilibrium occurs when two systems in contact have the same temperature and no heat flows between them
• Intensive properties (pressure, temperature) are independent of the system size, while extensive properties (volume, mass) depend on the size
• Equation of state relates state variables, such as the ideal gas law ($PV = nRT$)

Laws of Thermodynamics

• Zeroth Law establishes the concept of thermal equilibrium and temperature
• First Law states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another
  • Expressed as $\Delta U = Q - W$, where $\Delta U$ is the change in internal energy, $Q$ is heat added, and $W$ is work done by the system
• Second Law introduces the concept of entropy and states that it always increases in a closed system
  • Indicates the irreversibility of natural processes and the direction of heat transfer (hot to cold)
• Third Law states that the entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero is zero, setting a lower limit on temperature

Thermodynamic Systems and Processes

• Open systems allow mass and energy to cross boundaries, while closed systems only allow energy transfer
• Isolated systems do not exchange energy or mass with their surroundings
• Isothermal processes occur at constant temperature, with heat transfer balanced by work ($\Delta U = 0$)
• Adiabatic processes have no heat transfer ($Q = 0$), and work causes changes in temperature
• Isobaric processes maintain constant pressure, with heat transfer causing changes in volume
• Isochoric (isovolumetric) processes occur at constant volume, with heat transfer causing changes in pressure
• Cyclic processes return the system to its initial state, with no net change in state variables

Energy and Heat Transfer

• Internal energy is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies of the particles within a system
• Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between systems due to a temperature difference
• Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance by one degree per unit mass
  • Varies depending on the substance and process (e.g., $c_p$ for constant pressure, $c_v$ for constant volume)
• Thermal conductivity measures a material's ability to conduct heat
• Convection involves heat transfer due to the bulk motion of fluids
• Radiation is the emission of electromagnetic waves from a surface, dependent on temperature and surface properties

Work and Power in Thermodynamics

• Work is the energy transfer due to a force acting over a distance
• In thermodynamics, work often involves changes in volume against a pressure ($W = -P\Delta V$ for constant pressure)
• Power is the rate of doing work or transferring energy
• Mechanical efficiency is the ratio of useful work output to total work input
• Reversible processes are idealized, with the system always in equilibrium with its surroundings
• Irreversible processes involve non-equilibrium states and often result in energy loss (e.g., friction, heat transfer)

Temperature Scales and Measurement

• Celsius scale defines 0°C as the freezing point and 100°C as the boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure
• Kelvin scale is the SI unit of temperature, with 0 K being absolute zero (no thermal motion)
  • Kelvin and Celsius scales have the same size degree, with a difference in reference point (0 K = -273.15°C)
• Fahrenheit scale is commonly used in the United States, with 32°F as the freezing point and 212°F as the boiling point of water at 1 atm pressure
• Thermometers measure temperature using the expansion of liquids (mercury, alcohol) or changes in electrical resistance (thermistors)
• Thermocouples measure temperature based on the Seebeck effect, generating a voltage proportional to the temperature difference between two dissimilar metals

Applications in Real-World Systems

• Heat engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work (e.g., internal combustion engines, steam turbines)
  • Efficiency is limited by the Carnot efficiency, dependent on the temperature difference between the hot and cold reservoirs
• Refrigerators and heat pumps move thermal energy from cold to hot reservoirs, requiring work input
  • Coefficient of Performance (COP) measures the efficiency of these devices
• Phase changes (melting, vaporization) involve heat transfer without temperature change, characterized by latent heat
• Thermal insulation reduces heat transfer between systems, important for energy conservation in buildings and devices
• Thermodynamic principles are crucial in designing and optimizing various systems, from power plants to HVAC systems

Problem-Solving Techniques

• Identify the system and its boundaries, specifying whether it is open, closed, or isolated
• Determine the relevant state variables and processes involved
• Apply the appropriate laws of thermodynamics and equations (e.g., ideal gas law, heat transfer equations)
• Consider the direction of heat transfer and the sign conventions for work (positive for work done by the system, negative for work done on the system)
• Use conservation of energy to set up equations, accounting for changes in internal energy, heat transfer, and work
• For cyclic processes, recognize that the net change in state variables is zero
• Analyze the efficiency or COP of the system, identifying sources of irreversibility and potential improvements
• Double-check units and ensure that the final answer is reasonable based on the given information and physical intuition