🪖World War II Unit 2 – The Road to War

Key Events and Tensions

• World War I ended in 1918 with the defeat of Germany and the Central Powers, leaving Europe devastated and politically unstable
• The Treaty of Versailles (1919) imposed harsh terms on Germany, including loss of territory, military restrictions, and heavy reparations, fueling resentment and economic hardship
• The Great Depression (1929-1939) led to widespread unemployment, poverty, and political unrest, creating conditions for the rise of extremist ideologies
• The rise of fascism in Italy under Benito Mussolini (1922) and Nazism in Germany under Adolf Hitler (1933) challenged the post-war order and promoted aggressive nationalism and expansionism
• Japan's invasion of Manchuria (1931) and Italy's invasion of Ethiopia (1935) demonstrated the ineffectiveness of the League of Nations in maintaining international peace and security
• The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) became a proxy conflict between fascist and communist forces, with Germany and Italy supporting the Nationalist rebels and the Soviet Union supporting the Republican government
• Germany's annexation of Austria (Anschluss) in 1938 and the Munich Agreement (1938), which allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia, highlighted the policy of appeasement pursued by Western democracies

Major Powers and Their Motivations

• Germany, under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, sought to overturn the Treaty of Versailles, expand its territory (Lebensraum), and establish a racially pure "Third Reich"
  • Hitler's ideology of Aryan supremacy and anti-Semitism led to the persecution of Jews and other minority groups
• Italy, led by Benito Mussolini and the Fascist Party, aimed to restore the glory of the Roman Empire, expand its colonial possessions, and assert its power in the Mediterranean region
• Japan, governed by a militaristic regime, sought to dominate East Asia and secure access to raw materials and markets, leading to its invasion of China and Southeast Asian territories
• The United Kingdom and France, as the main Allied powers, initially pursued a policy of appeasement to avoid another war but later sought to contain German and Italian aggression and protect their colonial interests
• The United States, under President Franklin D. Roosevelt, initially maintained a policy of neutrality but provided material support to the Allies through programs like the Lend-Lease Act (1941)
• The Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin, signed a non-aggression pact with Germany (Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) in 1939 but later joined the Allies after Germany's invasion in 1941 (Operation Barbarossa)

Treaty of Versailles and Its Aftermath

• The Treaty of Versailles was signed in June 1919, officially ending World War I between Germany and the Allied Powers
  • The treaty placed sole blame for the war on Germany (Article 231, the "War Guilt Clause")
  • Germany was required to pay heavy reparations, estimated at 132 billion gold marks, which crippled its economy and led to hyperinflation
• Germany lost significant territories, including Alsace-Lorraine to France, and its colonies were divided among the Allied Powers as mandates under the League of Nations
• The German military was severely restricted, with limitations on the size of its army, navy, and the prohibition of an air force
  • The Rhineland, a region bordering France, was demilitarized to prevent German aggression
• The treaty's harsh terms and the humiliation it brought upon Germany fueled resentment and nationalist sentiments, which contributed to the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party
• The League of Nations, established as part of the treaty to maintain international peace and security, lacked the power to enforce its decisions and prevent future conflicts
• The United States, despite President Woodrow Wilson's role in shaping the treaty, did not ratify it or join the League of Nations, weakening the organization's effectiveness

Rise of Fascism and Militarism

• Fascism emerged as a political ideology in Italy under Benito Mussolini, who founded the Fascist Party in 1919 and became Prime Minister in 1922
  • Fascism emphasized nationalism, authoritarianism, and opposition to communism and liberalism
  • Mussolini sought to create a "New Roman Empire" through aggressive foreign policy and expansionism
• In Germany, Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power, exploiting the economic hardship and political instability of the Weimar Republic
  • Hitler became Chancellor in 1933 and quickly consolidated power, establishing a totalitarian dictatorship
  • Nazi ideology promoted extreme nationalism, racial superiority (Aryan race), and anti-Semitism, leading to the persecution of Jews and other minority groups
• Japan experienced a rise in militarism and ultra-nationalism during the 1930s, with the military increasingly influencing political decisions
  • The invasion of Manchuria in 1931 and the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) reflected Japan's aggressive expansionism and desire for regional dominance
• The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939) saw the fascist-backed Nationalist forces, led by General Francisco Franco, overthrow the democratically-elected Republican government
  • The conflict attracted international involvement, with Germany and Italy supporting the Nationalists and the Soviet Union supporting the Republicans
• The rise of fascism and militarism in Europe and Asia challenged the post-World War I order and set the stage for the aggressive actions that led to World War II

Appeasement and Failed Diplomacy

• Appeasement was a foreign policy approach adopted by Western democracies, particularly the United Kingdom and France, in the 1930s to avoid war with aggressive powers like Germany and Italy
  • The policy aimed to make concessions to satisfy the demands of these nations in the hope that it would prevent further aggression
• The Munich Agreement of September 1938 was a prime example of appeasement, where the UK, France, Italy, and Germany agreed to allow Nazi Germany to annex the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia
  • British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain declared the agreement had achieved "peace for our time," but it only emboldened Hitler's expansionist ambitions
• Germany violated the Munich Agreement in March 1939 by occupying the rest of Czechoslovakia, demonstrating the failure of appeasement to contain Nazi aggression
• The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, a non-aggression agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union signed in August 1939, included a secret protocol dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence
  • The pact allowed Germany to invade Poland without Soviet interference, leading to the outbreak of World War II in Europe
• The League of Nations, established to maintain international peace and security, proved ineffective in addressing the aggressive actions of Germany, Italy, and Japan
  • The League's lack of enforcement mechanisms and the absence of major powers like the United States undermined its ability to prevent conflicts
• The failure of appeasement and diplomatic efforts to contain the aggressive ambitions of Germany, Italy, and Japan ultimately led to the outbreak of World War II

Alliances and Pacts

• The Axis Powers, consisting of Germany, Italy, and Japan, formed a loose alliance based on their shared opposition to the Allied Powers and their expansionist goals
  • The Pact of Steel (1939) formalized the alliance between Germany and Italy
  • The Tripartite Pact (1940) brought Japan into the alliance, creating the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis
• The Allied Powers, led by the United Kingdom, France, and later the United States and the Soviet Union, united to counter the aggression of the Axis Powers
  • The Anglo-Polish military alliance (1939) committed the UK to defend Poland in case of German aggression
  • The Lend-Lease Act (1941) allowed the United States to provide material support to the Allies without directly entering the war
• The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (1939) was a non-aggression agreement between Germany and the Soviet Union, which included a secret protocol dividing Eastern Europe into spheres of influence
  • The pact allowed Germany to invade Poland without Soviet interference, leading to the outbreak of World War II in Europe
  • The pact was broken when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa)
• The Atlantic Charter (1941), signed by the United States and the United Kingdom, outlined the Allied goals for the post-war world, including self-determination, economic cooperation, and collective security
• The United Nations Declaration (1942) formalized the alliance of 26 nations, including the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, against the Axis Powers
• The Tehran Conference (1943) and the Yalta Conference (1945) brought together the leaders of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union to discuss war strategies and post-war plans

Immediate Triggers and Invasions

• Germany's invasion of Poland on September 1, 1939, marked the beginning of World War II in Europe
  • The invasion triggered the Anglo-Polish military alliance, leading the United Kingdom and France to declare war on Germany on September 3, 1939
• Germany's Blitzkrieg (lightning war) tactics, which involved rapid, coordinated attacks with tanks, infantry, and air support, quickly overwhelmed Polish defenses
  • The Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east on September 17, 1939, as per the secret protocol of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact
• Germany invaded Denmark and Norway in April 1940 to secure access to the Atlantic Ocean and protect its northern flank
• The fall of France in June 1940 resulted from Germany's invasion and the successful implementation of the Manstein Plan, which involved a surprise attack through the Ardennes forest
  • The British Expeditionary Force and Allied troops were evacuated from Dunkirk in a massive operation (Operation Dynamo)
• Italy entered the war on June 10, 1940, by declaring war on France and the United Kingdom, seeking to expand its territories in the Mediterranean and Africa
• Germany launched the Battle of Britain, an aerial campaign to gain air superiority over the United Kingdom, in preparation for a planned invasion (Operation Sea Lion)
  • The resilience of the Royal Air Force and British resolve led to Germany's failure to achieve its objectives
• Japan's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, on December 7, 1941, brought the United States into the war against the Axis Powers
  • The attack aimed to cripple the U.S. Pacific Fleet and prevent American interference in Japan's planned conquest of Southeast Asia

Global Impact and Reactions

• The outbreak of World War II had far-reaching consequences, affecting nations and peoples across the globe
• The United States, initially maintaining a policy of neutrality, provided material support to the Allies through the Lend-Lease Act (1941) before officially entering the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor
  • American industrial might and military power played a crucial role in the Allied victory
• The Soviet Union, despite initial neutrality due to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, was drawn into the war by Germany's invasion in June 1941 (Operation Barbarossa)
  • The Eastern Front became a major theater of the war, with brutal fighting and immense casualties on both sides
• The Holocaust, the systematic persecution and genocide of European Jews and other minority groups by Nazi Germany, resulted in the deaths of approximately 6 million Jews and millions of others
  • The discovery of concentration camps and the extent of the atrocities committed shocked the world and led to a renewed commitment to human rights and international justice
• Colonial peoples in Asia and Africa, under the rule of European powers, were drawn into the conflict, often fighting alongside their colonizers
  • The war accelerated the process of decolonization, as colonial powers were weakened and nationalist movements gained momentum
• Neutral countries, such as Switzerland, Sweden, and Ireland, faced challenges in maintaining their neutrality and dealing with the economic and political pressures of the war
• The war's global scale led to the formation of the United Nations (1945) as a successor to the League of Nations, with the aim of maintaining international peace and security and promoting cooperation among nations
• World War II resulted in an estimated 70-85 million fatalities, including military personnel and civilians, making it the deadliest conflict in human history
  • The widespread destruction, displacement, and loss of life left a lasting impact on the world, shaping the political, economic, and social landscape for generations to come