💵Principles of Macroeconomics Unit 10 – International Trade & Capital Flows

Key Concepts

• Absolute advantage occurs when a country can produce a good or service more efficiently than another country
• Comparative advantage exists when a country has a lower opportunity cost of producing a good or service relative to another country
• Balance of payments is a record of all international transactions made by a country's residents, firms, and government bodies
• Current account measures the flow of goods, services, income, and current transfers between countries
• Capital account tracks the changes in ownership of assets between countries
• Exchange rate represents the price of one currency in terms of another currency
• Appreciation refers to an increase in the value of a currency relative to another currency
• Depreciation denotes a decrease in the value of a currency relative to another currency
  • Can be caused by factors such as higher inflation rates, lower interest rates, or political instability

Theories of International Trade

• Mercantilism advocated maximizing exports and minimizing imports to accumulate gold and silver
• Absolute advantage theory proposed by Adam Smith suggests that countries should specialize in producing goods they can make most efficiently
• Comparative advantage theory developed by David Ricardo emphasizes specialization based on relative opportunity costs
  • Even if a country has an absolute advantage in producing all goods, it can still benefit from specialization and trade
• Heckscher-Ohlin model explains international trade patterns based on differences in factor endowments (land, labor, capital) between countries
• New trade theory incorporates economies of scale, product differentiation, and imperfect competition to explain intra-industry trade
• Gravity model suggests that trade flows between countries are positively related to their economic sizes and negatively related to the distance between them

Balance of Payments

• Consists of the current account, capital account, and financial account
• Current account includes trade in goods and services, primary income (investment income), and secondary income (transfers)
  • A current account deficit occurs when a country's imports exceed its exports
  • A current account surplus arises when a country's exports exceed its imports
• Capital account records capital transfers and the acquisition or disposal of non-produced, non-financial assets
• Financial account tracks changes in ownership of financial assets and liabilities between countries
  • Includes foreign direct investment (FDI), portfolio investment, and reserve assets
• Errors and omissions account balances the overall balance of payments by accounting for statistical discrepancies

Exchange Rates and Currency Markets

• Nominal exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another currency
• Real exchange rate adjusts the nominal exchange rate for differences in price levels between countries
• Floating exchange rate system allows the value of a currency to be determined by market forces of supply and demand
• Fixed exchange rate system involves a country's central bank intervening in the currency market to maintain a set exchange rate
• Managed float system combines elements of both floating and fixed exchange rates, with occasional central bank intervention
• Purchasing power parity (PPP) theory suggests that exchange rates should adjust to equalize the prices of identical goods in different countries
• Interest rate parity (IRP) condition implies that the difference in interest rates between two countries should equal the expected change in their exchange rate

Trade Policies and Agreements

• Free trade refers to the unrestricted flow of goods and services between countries without tariffs, quotas, or other barriers
• Protectionism involves the use of trade barriers to shield domestic industries from foreign competition
  • Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods to raise their prices and protect domestic producers
  • Import quotas limit the quantity or value of goods that can be imported into a country
  • Subsidies are government payments to domestic producers to help them compete with foreign firms
• World Trade Organization (WTO) is a global institution that oversees and enforces rules of international trade between member countries
• Regional trade agreements (RTAs) are treaties between two or more countries to reduce trade barriers and promote economic integration
  • Examples include the European Union (EU), North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

Capital Flows and Foreign Investment

• Foreign direct investment (FDI) occurs when a firm invests in and establishes control over a business in another country
  • Horizontal FDI aims to replicate the firm's home country production process in a foreign country to serve the local market
  • Vertical FDI involves fragmenting the production process across countries to take advantage of differences in factor costs
• Portfolio investment refers to the purchase of foreign financial assets (stocks, bonds) for the purpose of earning returns
• Push factors are conditions in the source country that encourage capital outflows (low interest rates, limited investment opportunities)
• Pull factors are conditions in the recipient country that attract capital inflows (high interest rates, strong economic growth, favorable policies)
• Capital controls are measures implemented by governments to regulate the flow of capital into and out of the country
  • Can be used to prevent capital flight during economic crises or to maintain a fixed exchange rate

Global Economic Institutions

• International Monetary Fund (IMF) promotes global monetary cooperation, exchange rate stability, and provides financial assistance to countries in need
• World Bank Group offers loans, grants, and technical assistance to developing countries to promote economic development and poverty reduction
  • Consists of five institutions: International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), International Development Association (IDA), International Finance Corporation (IFC), Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), and International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)
• Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) is an intergovernmental organization that promotes policies to improve economic and social well-being
• Bank for International Settlements (BIS) serves as a bank for central banks and facilitates international monetary and financial cooperation

Real-World Applications and Case Studies

• China's economic growth and trade surplus with the United States have led to trade tensions and tariffs between the two countries
• Brexit, the United Kingdom's withdrawal from the European Union, has created uncertainty about future trade relations and economic growth
• The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis highlighted the risks of capital flight and the importance of sound macroeconomic policies and financial regulation
• The 2008 Global Financial Crisis demonstrated the interconnectedness of global financial markets and the need for coordinated policy responses
• The rise of global value chains (GVCs) has increased the complexity of international trade and the importance of trade in intermediate goods and services
• The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted global trade and supply chains, leading to debates about the resilience and sustainability of the global trading system