🥼Organic Chemistry Unit 18 – Ethers, Epoxides, Thiols, and Sulfides

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Ethers contain an oxygen atom bonded to two alkyl or aryl groups with the general formula R–O–R'
• Epoxides are cyclic ethers with a three-membered ring structure consisting of an oxygen atom and two carbon atoms
• Thiols, also known as mercaptans, are sulfur analogs of alcohols with the general formula R–SH
• Sulfides are organic compounds containing a sulfur atom bonded to two carbon atoms with the general formula R–S–R'
• Nomenclature of ethers and sulfides follows the IUPAC system, with the larger alkyl group named as an alkoxy or alkylthio substituent
• Epoxides are named by adding the prefix "epoxy" to the name of the parent alkene
• Thiols are named by adding the suffix "-thiol" to the name of the parent alkane

Structure and Nomenclature

• Ethers have a bent structure with an sp³ hybridized oxygen atom and two lone pairs of electrons
• Epoxides have a strained three-membered ring structure with an sp³ hybridized oxygen atom and one lone pair of electrons
• Thiols have a similar structure to alcohols, with an sp³ hybridized sulfur atom and one lone pair of electrons
• Sulfides have a bent structure with an sp³ hybridized sulfur atom and two lone pairs of electrons
• Common nomenclature for ethers includes diethyl ether (ethoxyethane) and methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE)
• Examples of epoxides include ethylene oxide (epoxyethane) and propylene oxide (epoxypropane)
• Thiols are often named using common names, such as ethanethiol and 2-propanethiol

Physical Properties

• Ethers have relatively low boiling points compared to alcohols of similar molecular weight due to the absence of hydrogen bonding
• Epoxides have higher boiling points than acyclic ethers due to their cyclic structure and increased dipole moment
• Thiols have strong, unpleasant odors often described as resembling garlic or rotten eggs
• Sulfides have lower boiling points than their oxygen analogs (ethers) due to weaker intermolecular forces
• Ethers are generally insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
  • Solubility in water decreases with increasing alkyl chain length
• Thiols and sulfides have lower solubility in water compared to their oxygen analogs due to the lower polarity of the C–S bond
• Ethers and sulfides are less dense than water, while thiols are slightly denser than water

Synthesis and Preparation Methods

• Williamson ether synthesis involves the reaction of an alkoxide ion with an alkyl halide to form an ether
• Epoxides can be prepared by the oxidation of alkenes using peroxyacids, such as meta-chloroperoxybenzoic acid (mCPBA)
• Thiols can be synthesized by the reaction of alkyl halides with sodium hydrosulfide (NaSH) or by the reduction of sulfonic acids
• Sulfides can be prepared by the reaction of alkyl halides with sodium sulfide (Na₂S) or by the reduction of sulfoxides
• Dehydration of alcohols using acid catalysts (H₂SO₄ or H₃PO₄) at high temperatures can yield ethers
  • This method is limited by the formation of alkenes as byproducts
• Epoxidation of alkenes can also be achieved using alkaline hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in the presence of a catalyst (Weitz-Scheffer epoxidation)
• Thiols can be prepared by the nucleophilic addition of hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) to alkenes in the presence of a radical initiator

Reactions and Mechanisms

• Ethers undergo cleavage reactions with strong acids (HI, HBr, or HCl) to form alcohols and alkyl halides
• Epoxides react with nucleophiles in a ring-opening reaction, leading to the formation of 1,2-difunctionalized products
  • Nucleophiles can include water, alcohols, amines, and halides
• Thiols can act as nucleophiles in substitution reactions, displacing halides or other leaving groups
• Sulfides can be oxidized to sulfoxides (R₂SO) and further to sulfones (R₂SO₂) using oxidizing agents like hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) or peroxyacids
• Ethers are relatively unreactive compared to other functional groups but can undergo alpha-halogenation and alpha-hydroxylation reactions
• Epoxides can also undergo rearrangement reactions, such as the Payne rearrangement and the Meinwald rearrangement
• Thiols can participate in radical reactions, such as thiol-ene and thiol-yne click chemistry, which have applications in polymer synthesis

Spectroscopy and Characterization

• In IR spectroscopy, ethers show a strong C–O stretching absorption band around 1100-1200 cm⁻¹
• Epoxides exhibit a characteristic C–O stretching band around 1250-1300 cm⁻¹ in IR spectra
• Thiols display a weak S–H stretching band around 2550-2600 cm⁻¹ in IR spectra
• In ¹H NMR spectroscopy, the protons adjacent to the oxygen atom in ethers appear as a singlet or multiplet, depending on the substituents
• The protons on the carbon atoms of an epoxide ring appear as multiplets in ¹H NMR spectra due to their diastereotopic nature
• In ¹³C NMR spectroscopy, the carbon atoms bonded to the oxygen atom in ethers appear around 60-80 ppm
• The carbon atoms of an epoxide ring typically appear around 50-60 ppm in ¹³C NMR spectra

Applications in Organic Synthesis

• Ethers are commonly used as solvents in organic reactions due to their ability to dissolve a wide range of organic compounds
• Epoxides are versatile building blocks in organic synthesis, as they can undergo ring-opening reactions with various nucleophiles to form 1,2-difunctionalized products
  • These products can be further transformed into complex molecules, such as pharmaceuticals and natural products
• Thiols are used as protecting groups for alcohols and amines in multi-step organic synthesis
• Sulfides can be used as precursors to other organosulfur compounds, such as sulfoxides, sulfones, and sulfonium salts
• Crown ethers, cyclic polyethers, are used as phase-transfer catalysts and for selective binding of metal ions
• Epoxide-based polymers, such as epoxy resins, have applications in adhesives, coatings, and composites
• Thiol-ene and thiol-yne click reactions have been employed in the synthesis of dendrimers, hydrogels, and surface modifications

Biological and Industrial Significance

• Diethyl ether has been used as an anesthetic, although its use has largely been replaced by safer alternatives
• Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is a common solvent used in biological research for the cryopreservation of cells and tissues
• Epoxides, such as ethylene oxide and propylene oxide, are used in the production of polyethers and polyols for the manufacturing of plastics and detergents
• Thiols play a crucial role in the structure and function of proteins, particularly in the formation of disulfide bonds
• Sulfides, such as dimethyl sulfide (DMS), are important in the global sulfur cycle and contribute to the characteristic odor of marine environments
• Mustard gas, a sulfur-containing compound, has been used as a chemical weapon due to its vesicant properties
• Epoxide-based drugs, such as fosfomycin and etoposide, have antibacterial and anticancer properties, respectively
• Thiol-containing compounds, such as glutathione and cysteine, are essential antioxidants in biological systems, protecting cells from oxidative stress