🎌Japanese American History Unit 7 – Japanese American Internment: Executive Order 9066

Historical Context

• Rising anti-Japanese sentiment in the U.S. during the early 20th century fueled by economic competition and racial prejudice
• Discriminatory laws enacted against Japanese Americans (Alien Land Laws, Immigration Act of 1924)
• Japan's aggressive military expansion and alliance with Nazi Germany increased American suspicion and hostility towards Japanese Americans
• Attacks on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese military on December 7, 1941 heightened fears of potential espionage and sabotage by Japanese Americans
  • Resulted in the U.S. entering World War II
• Pressure from military officials and politicians to take action against Japanese Americans citing national security concerns
• Public opinion turned against Japanese Americans, leading to calls for their removal and confinement

Executive Order 9066: Overview

• Issued by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942 in response to growing fears and pressure
• Authorized the military to designate "military areas" from which any or all persons could be excluded
  • Did not specifically mention Japanese Americans but was primarily applied to them
• Granted broad powers to the Secretary of War and military commanders to implement the order as they saw fit
• Led to the forced removal and incarceration of approximately 120,000 Japanese Americans living on the West Coast
• Affected both American citizens (Nisei) and non-citizens (Issei) of Japanese descent
• Justified as a "military necessity" to protect against espionage and sabotage, despite lack of evidence
• Violated the constitutional rights of Japanese Americans, particularly due process and equal protection under the law

Implementation and Relocation Process

• Military-designated exclusion zones established along the West Coast, including California, Oregon, and Washington
• Japanese Americans ordered to register and report to temporary assembly centers (converted fairgrounds, racetracks)
  • Given short notice, often only a few days, to settle affairs and pack limited belongings
• Forced to sell or abandon property, businesses, and possessions due to inability to manage them during confinement
• Transported under armed guard to remote, hastily constructed internment camps primarily located in inland desert areas
• Ten main internment camps established: Manzanar, Tule Lake, Poston, Gila River, Topaz, Heart Mountain, Minidoka, Granada, Rohwer, and Jerome
• Camps surrounded by barbed wire fences and guard towers, creating a prison-like atmosphere
• Inhumane conditions during the relocation process, including overcrowding, lack of privacy, and inadequate facilities

Life in the Internment Camps

• Harsh and challenging living conditions in the camps due to their remote locations and rushed construction
• Cramped, barracks-style housing with limited privacy and shared facilities (bathrooms, mess halls)
• Extreme weather conditions (hot summers, cold winters) and lack of proper insulation and heating in the barracks
• Inadequate medical care and limited access to proper nutrition and supplies
• Loss of autonomy and self-sufficiency as internees were dependent on the government for basic needs
• Disruption of family life and traditional roles, as communal living and dining altered family dynamics
• Limited educational and recreational opportunities, although some camps established schools and organized activities
• Emotional and psychological trauma resulting from the forced incarceration and uncertainty about the future
  • Feelings of betrayal, humiliation, and injustice were common among internees

Legal Challenges and Court Cases

• Several legal challenges to the constitutionality of the internment arose during and after the war
• Hirabayashi v. United States (1943): Gordon Hirabayashi challenged the curfew and exclusion orders
  • Supreme Court upheld the orders, citing military necessity and deference to executive authority during wartime
• Korematsu v. United States (1944): Fred Korematsu challenged the constitutionality of the internment
  • Supreme Court ruled the internment was justified due to military necessity, setting a controversial precedent
• Ex parte Endo (1944): Mitsuye Endo challenged her detention, arguing for the right of loyal citizens to be released
  • Supreme Court ruled in her favor, leading to the gradual closure of the camps
• Coram nobis cases (1980s): Hirabayashi, Korematsu, and Yasui filed petitions to vacate their convictions
  • Courts overturned their convictions, acknowledging the government's misconduct and suppression of evidence
• The legal challenges exposed the injustice of the internment and the failure of the courts to protect civil liberties during wartime

Impact on Japanese American Communities

• Profound and long-lasting effects on Japanese American individuals, families, and communities
• Economic losses due to forced sale or abandonment of property, businesses, and assets
  • Estimated total losses of $1-3 billion in today's dollars
• Disruption of education for Japanese American students, as they were removed from schools and had limited opportunities in the camps
• Psychological trauma and lasting emotional scars from the experience of forced removal and incarceration
• Breakdown of family structures and traditional roles, leading to intergenerational conflicts and identity issues
• Stigmatization and discrimination faced by Japanese Americans upon their release and return to society
• Loss of cultural heritage and traditions, as the camps disrupted the transmission of language and customs to younger generations
• Strengthened resolve among some Japanese Americans to assert their rights and fight for social justice
  • Increased political and civic engagement in the post-war era

End of Internment and Aftermath

• Gradual release of internees began in 1944, with the majority released by the end of 1945
  • Some internees, particularly at Tule Lake, remained in the camps until 1946
• Resettlement process was challenging, as many Japanese Americans had lost their homes, jobs, and communities
• Faced ongoing discrimination and struggled to rebuild their lives and livelihoods
• Redress movement gained momentum in the 1960s and 1970s, advocating for an official apology and reparations
• Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC) established in 1980 to investigate the internment
  • Concluded that the internment was not justified by military necessity and was motivated by "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership"
• Civil Liberties Act of 1988 signed by President Ronald Reagan, providing an official apology and $20,000 in reparations to each surviving internee
• Formal apology and reparations acknowledged the injustice of the internment and aimed to provide some measure of redress

Legacy and Modern Perspectives

• The internment remains a dark chapter in American history, serving as a cautionary tale about the fragility of civil liberties during times of crisis
• Increased awareness and education about the internment through museums, memorials, and oral history projects
  • Preservation of internment camp sites as national historic landmarks (Manzanar, Tule Lake)
• Ongoing discussions about the parallels between the internment and contemporary issues of racial profiling, immigration, and national security
• Renewed interest in the internment following the 9/11 attacks and the rise of anti-Muslim sentiment
  • Concerns about the potential for similar treatment of Muslim Americans and other minority groups
• Recognition of the importance of upholding constitutional rights and preventing the abuse of executive power during times of crisis
• Continued efforts to educate the public about the internment and its lessons, promoting social justice and civil rights
• Growing acknowledgment of the resilience and contributions of Japanese Americans despite the injustice they faced
• The legacy of the internment serves as a reminder of the need for vigilance in protecting the rights of all individuals, regardless of race, ethnicity, or national origin