🧃Intermediate Microeconomic Theory Unit 1 – Consumer Theory in Microeconomics

Key Concepts and Definitions

• Consumer theory analyzes how consumers make decisions about purchasing goods and services based on their preferences, budget constraints, and the prices of goods
• Utility represents the satisfaction or benefit a consumer derives from consuming a good or service
• Marginal utility measures the additional satisfaction gained from consuming one more unit of a good or service
• Diminishing marginal utility states that as a consumer consumes more of a good, the additional satisfaction gained from each subsequent unit typically decreases
• Budget constraint represents the combination of goods and services a consumer can afford given their income and the prices of the goods
• Indifference curves depict different combinations of goods that provide a consumer with the same level of satisfaction or utility
  • Points along an indifference curve represent equally preferred bundles of goods
• Marginal rate of substitution (MRS) measures the amount of one good a consumer is willing to give up to obtain one more unit of another good while maintaining the same level of utility

Consumer Preferences and Utility

• Consumer preferences describe how a consumer ranks different bundles of goods based on their perceived utility or satisfaction
• Completeness assumes that a consumer can compare and rank any two bundles of goods
  • For any two bundles A and B, the consumer either prefers A to B, prefers B to A, or is indifferent between them
• Transitivity assumes that if a consumer prefers bundle A to B and bundle B to C, then they must also prefer bundle A to C
• Monotonicity assumes that more of a good is always preferred to less, holding all else constant
  • A bundle with more of at least one good and no less of any other good is preferred to the original bundle
• Convexity assumes that consumers prefer averages or combinations of bundles to extremes
  • If a consumer is indifferent between two bundles, they will prefer a mix of the two bundles to either of the original bundles
• Utility functions assign a numerical value to each bundle of goods, representing the consumer's preferences
  • Higher utility values indicate greater satisfaction or preference for a bundle

Budget Constraints and Consumer Choice

• The budget constraint represents all combinations of goods a consumer can afford given their income and the prices of the goods
• The budget constraint is a straight line with a slope equal to the negative ratio of the prices of the two goods ($-P_x/P_y$)
• The intercepts of the budget constraint represent the maximum amount of each good the consumer can purchase if they spend their entire income on that good
  • The x-intercept is the consumer's income divided by the price of good x ($I/P_x$)
  • The y-intercept is the consumer's income divided by the price of good y ($I/P_y$)
• Changes in income shift the budget constraint parallel to the original constraint
  • An increase in income shifts the budget constraint outward, allowing the consumer to afford more of both goods
  • A decrease in income shifts the budget constraint inward, reducing the consumer's purchasing power
• Changes in the price of a good rotate the budget constraint around the intercept of the other good
  • A decrease in the price of good x makes the budget constraint flatter, allowing the consumer to purchase more of good x
  • An increase in the price of good x makes the budget constraint steeper, reducing the amount of good x the consumer can afford

Indifference Curves and Optimal Decisions

• Indifference curves represent different combinations of goods that provide a consumer with the same level of utility or satisfaction
• Properties of indifference curves:
  • Downward sloping, as consumers are willing to trade off one good for another while maintaining the same level of utility
  • Do not intersect, as two different levels of utility cannot be equal at the same bundle of goods
  • Convex to the origin, reflecting the diminishing marginal rate of substitution
• The marginal rate of substitution (MRS) is the slope of the indifference curve at any given point
  • MRS measures the amount of one good a consumer is willing to give up to obtain one more unit of another good while maintaining the same level of utility
• The optimal consumption bundle is the point where the consumer's budget constraint is tangent to the highest attainable indifference curve
  • At this point, the slope of the indifference curve (MRS) equals the slope of the budget constraint ($-P_x/P_y$)
  • The consumer maximizes their utility subject to their budget constraint

Income and Substitution Effects

• The income effect describes how a consumer's optimal consumption bundle changes when their income changes, holding prices constant
  • A normal good is one for which demand increases as income increases, resulting in a positive income effect
  • An inferior good is one for which demand decreases as income increases, resulting in a negative income effect
• The substitution effect describes how a consumer's optimal consumption bundle changes when the relative prices of goods change, holding utility constant
  • When the price of a good increases, consumers will substitute away from that good and towards other relatively cheaper goods
• The total effect of a price change on a consumer's demand for a good is the sum of the income and substitution effects
  • The Slutsky equation decomposes the total effect of a price change into the substitution effect and the income effect
• Giffen goods are a special case where the income effect dominates the substitution effect
  • For a Giffen good, an increase in its price leads to an increase in its quantity demanded, violating the law of demand

Demand Curves and Elasticity

• The individual demand curve shows the relationship between the price of a good and the quantity demanded by a single consumer, holding all other factors constant
• The market demand curve is the horizontal summation of all individual demand curves, representing the total quantity demanded by all consumers at each price level
• Elasticity measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to changes in price, income, or other factors
• Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures the percentage change in quantity demanded in response to a percentage change in price
  • PED = (% change in quantity demanded) / (% change in price)
  • Elastic demand (|PED| > 1): Quantity demanded is highly responsive to price changes
  • Inelastic demand (|PED| < 1): Quantity demanded is less responsive to price changes
  • Unit elastic demand (|PED| = 1): Percentage change in quantity demanded equals percentage change in price
• Income elasticity of demand measures the percentage change in quantity demanded in response to a percentage change in income
  • Positive income elasticity indicates a normal good, while negative income elasticity indicates an inferior good
• Cross-price elasticity of demand measures the percentage change in quantity demanded of one good in response to a percentage change in the price of another good
  • Positive cross-price elasticity indicates substitute goods, while negative cross-price elasticity indicates complementary goods

Applications and Real-World Examples

• Consumer theory helps businesses make pricing and production decisions based on their understanding of consumer preferences and demand
  • Firms can use price elasticity of demand to determine the optimal pricing strategy for their products
  • Knowledge of income and cross-price elasticities can inform product positioning and marketing strategies
• Governments can use consumer theory to analyze the impact of taxes, subsidies, and other policies on consumer behavior and welfare
  • For example, the effect of a tax on a good depends on the elasticity of demand and supply for that good
• Consumer theory can explain phenomena such as the diamond-water paradox, where water is essential but relatively cheap, while diamonds are less essential but highly expensive
  • The marginal utility of water is low due to its abundance, while the marginal utility of diamonds is high due to their scarcity
• Behavioral economics incorporates insights from psychology to explain deviations from the rational consumer model
  • Examples include loss aversion, where consumers feel the pain of a loss more intensely than the pleasure of an equivalent gain, and the endowment effect, where consumers place a higher value on goods they already own

Common Pitfalls and Study Tips

• Remember that indifference curves and budget constraints are not the same concept
  • Indifference curves represent preferences, while budget constraints represent affordability
• Be careful not to confuse the income effect and the substitution effect when analyzing the impact of price changes on consumer behavior
  • The income effect relates to changes in purchasing power, while the substitution effect relates to changes in relative prices
• Pay attention to the units and interpretation of elasticity measures
  • Elasticity is a unitless measure that represents percentage changes, not absolute changes
• Practice sketching and interpreting graphs of indifference curves, budget constraints, and demand curves
  • Visual representations can help you better understand the relationships between key concepts
• Relate the abstract concepts of consumer theory to real-world examples and applications
  • This will help you develop a more intuitive understanding of the material and make it easier to remember
• When solving optimization problems, clearly state the objective function (what the consumer is trying to maximize) and the constraint (the budget constraint)
  • Ensure that your solution satisfies both the first-order conditions (tangency between indifference curve and budget constraint) and second-order conditions (convexity of preferences)
• Review the key assumptions underlying the rational consumer model, such as completeness, transitivity, and monotonicity
  • Understanding these assumptions will help you identify situations where the standard model may not apply, such as in the presence of behavioral biases