🏛️Archaeology of Post-Colonial America Unit 10 – Archaeological Methods and Techniques

Key Concepts and Terminology

• Stratigraphy involves the study of layered deposits and the relationships between them to understand the chronology and context of a site
• Provenience refers to the precise location and context of an artifact or feature within an archaeological site
  • Includes horizontal and vertical coordinates as well as the stratigraphic layer
• Typology is the classification of artifacts based on shared attributes such as form, function, and material
• Seriation is a relative dating method that arranges artifacts in a chronological sequence based on changes in style or frequency over time
• Taphonomy studies the processes that affect the preservation and modification of archaeological remains from the time of deposition to the time of discovery
• Assemblage refers to a group of artifacts found in association with each other, often representing a specific activity or time period
• Feature is a non-portable element of an archaeological site such as a hearth, post hole, or storage pit

Historical Context and Significance

• Post-colonial archaeology in America focuses on the period following European colonization and the establishment of the United States
• Investigates the impact of colonialism, slavery, and industrialization on various communities and cultures
• Examines the formation and transformation of American identity and society through material culture
• Addresses issues of power, resistance, and cultural interaction between Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans
• Contributes to a more inclusive and diverse understanding of American history by incorporating the experiences of marginalized groups
• Provides insights into daily life, social structures, and economic activities of different communities during the post-colonial period
• Helps to challenge and revise traditional historical narratives based on documentary sources alone

Survey and Site Identification Techniques

• Pedestrian survey involves systematically walking over an area to identify surface artifacts and features
  • Often conducted in transects with a fixed interval between surveyors
• Shovel testing is a subsurface survey method that involves digging small, regularly spaced test pits to identify buried archaeological deposits
• Remote sensing techniques such as aerial photography, satellite imagery, and LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) are used to identify potential sites and landscape features
• Geophysical survey methods like magnetometry, ground-penetrating radar (GPR), and electrical resistivity can detect subsurface features and anomalies without excavation
• Informant interviews with local residents, descendants of historical communities, and other stakeholders can provide valuable information about site locations and oral histories
• Archival research involves examining historical documents, maps, and photographs to identify potential sites and gather contextual information
• Predictive modeling uses environmental, historical, and cultural data to create maps of areas with high archaeological potential

Excavation Methods and Strategies

• Stratigraphic excavation involves carefully removing and documenting soil layers (strata) in reverse order of deposition to understand the site's chronology
• Arbitrary levels are used when natural strata are not visible, involving the removal of soil in fixed depth increments (e.g., 10 cm)
• Features are excavated separately from the surrounding matrix to maintain their context and integrity
• Screening of excavated soil through mesh (usually 1/4 inch or 1/8 inch) ensures the recovery of small artifacts and ecofacts
• Flotation is used to recover botanical remains and other light fraction materials by agitating soil samples in water
• Sampling strategies such as random sampling, systematic sampling, and judgmental sampling are employed to ensure representative coverage of a site
• Excavation units are typically laid out in a grid system to maintain spatial control and facilitate mapping and recording

Artifact Analysis and Classification

• Artifacts are cleaned, labeled, and cataloged according to provenience and type
• Morphological analysis examines the physical attributes of artifacts such as shape, size, and decoration
• Functional analysis infers the use and purpose of artifacts based on their design, wear patterns, and contextual associations
• Typological classification groups artifacts into categories based on shared attributes, allowing for comparative analysis and chronological ordering
• Quantitative methods such as measurements, counts, and statistical analyses are used to identify patterns and trends in artifact assemblages
• Qualitative methods such as use-wear analysis and residue analysis provide insights into the specific functions and materials associated with artifacts
• Specialized analyses such as faunal analysis (animal remains), paleoethnobotany (plant remains), and ceramic petrography (clay composition) offer detailed information about past environments, subsistence practices, and trade networks

Dating Techniques and Chronology

• Relative dating methods establish the chronological order of artifacts, features, or sites without assigning specific dates
  • Includes stratigraphy, seriation, and cross-dating (comparing artifacts with those from other dated contexts)
• Absolute dating methods provide specific dates or date ranges for archaeological materials
  • Radiocarbon dating measures the decay of carbon-14 in organic materials (wood, charcoal, bone) to determine their age
  • Dendrochronology (tree-ring dating) uses the annual growth rings of trees to date wooden artifacts and structures
  • Thermoluminescence dating measures the accumulated radiation in ceramics and other fired materials to determine their last heating event
• Archaeomagnetic dating analyzes the magnetic properties of burned features (hearths, kilns) to determine their last firing based on changes in the Earth's magnetic field over time
• Typological dating uses the stylistic attributes of artifacts (ceramics, projectile points) to place them within established chronological sequences
• Historical archaeology often relies on the presence of datable artifacts such as coins, clay pipes, and ceramics with known production ranges to establish site chronologies

Documentation and Record-Keeping

• Field notes are detailed written accounts of daily excavation activities, observations, and interpretations
• Photographs are taken of excavation units, features, artifacts, and the overall site at various stages of the investigation
• Drawings include plan views (horizontal) and profile views (vertical) of excavation units, features, and stratigraphic sections
• Mapping techniques such as total station survey, GPS, and photogrammetry are used to create accurate spatial records of the site and its features
• Artifact catalogs and databases are maintained to organize and track the recovered materials, their provenience, and any associated data
• Soil samples, flotation samples, and other specialized samples are collected and labeled for further analysis and long-term storage
• Field forms and recording sheets standardize the documentation process and ensure consistent data collection across the site
• All records, including digital data and photographs, are regularly backed up and stored in secure locations to prevent loss or damage

Ethical Considerations and Cultural Sensitivity

• Archaeologists must obtain proper permits and permissions from landowners, government agencies, and descendant communities before conducting fieldwork
• Consultation with Indigenous communities and other stakeholders is essential to ensure respectful treatment of ancestral sites, burials, and sacred objects
• Looting and the illicit antiquities trade are major threats to archaeological heritage, requiring vigilance and cooperation with law enforcement agencies
• Public outreach and education help to promote the value of archaeological research and foster stewardship of cultural resources
• Archaeologists have a responsibility to disseminate their findings through accessible publications, exhibits, and public programs
• Curation of archaeological collections in perpetuity ensures their long-term preservation and availability for future research and interpretation
• Balancing the need for scientific investigation with the rights and concerns of descendant communities requires ongoing dialogue and collaborative decision-making
• Acknowledging and addressing the discipline's colonial roots and power imbalances is crucial for building trust and advancing more equitable and inclusive practices in post-colonial archaeology