🌍AP World History: Modern Unit 4 – Global Connections: 1450-1750

Key Concepts and Time Period Overview

• Period from 1450 to 1750 marked by significant global connections and interactions
• Expansion of empires (Ottoman, Mughal, Qing) led to increased trade, cultural exchange, and conflict
• European exploration and colonization of the Americas began during this period (Christopher Columbus)
• Transatlantic slave trade emerged as a major economic system connecting Africa, Europe, and the Americas
• Gunpowder empires rose to power in Eurasia (Safavid, Mughal, Ottoman)
• Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment challenged traditional beliefs and sparked new ideas
• Protestant Reformation split Western Christianity and led to religious conflicts (Thirty Years' War)
• Globalization of trade networks connected distant regions and facilitated exchange of goods, ideas, and diseases (Columbian Exchange)

Major Empires and Their Expansion

• Ottoman Empire expanded into Eastern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East
  • Conquered Constantinople in 1453, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire
  • Suleiman the Magnificent's reign (1520-1566) saw the empire reach its peak
• Mughal Empire established in India by Babur in 1526
  • Akbar the Great (r. 1556-1605) expanded the empire and promoted religious tolerance
  • Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707) expanded the empire to its greatest extent but faced challenges
• Qing Dynasty replaced the Ming Dynasty in China in 1644
  • Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661-1722) consolidated Qing control over China
  • Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735-1796) expanded the empire to its greatest extent
• Russian Empire emerged as a major power under Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725)
  • Expanded Russian territory and influence westward
  • Modernized Russian society and government based on Western European models
• Spanish and Portuguese empires established colonies in the Americas
  • Spain conquered the Aztec and Inca empires (Hernán Cortés, Francisco Pizarro)
  • Portugal established a trading empire in Brazil and along the African coast

Global Trade Networks and Economic Systems

• Silk Roads continued to connect Europe, the Middle East, and Asia
• Indian Ocean trade network expanded, connecting East Africa, the Middle East, India, and Southeast Asia
  • Swahili city-states emerged as important trading centers along the East African coast
  • Malacca became a major entrepôt in Southeast Asia
• Transatlantic trade connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas
  • Triangular trade emerged, exchanging European manufactured goods, African slaves, and American raw materials
  • Slave trade became a significant component of the global economy
• Columbian Exchange introduced new crops, animals, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds
  • New crops (maize, potatoes, tomatoes) transformed agriculture and diets worldwide
  • Diseases (smallpox, measles) devastated native populations in the Americas
• European joint-stock companies (Dutch East India Company, British East India Company) established global trading networks
• Mercantilism emerged as a dominant economic policy in Europe
  • Emphasized accumulation of wealth through favorable trade balances and colonies

Technological and Maritime Innovations

• Gunpowder technology spread from China to Europe and the Islamic world
  • Cannons and firearms revolutionized warfare and contributed to the rise of gunpowder empires
  • Improved fortifications (star forts) developed in response to gunpowder weapons
• Printing press invented by Johannes Gutenberg around 1450
  • Facilitated the spread of knowledge, ideas, and religious beliefs (Protestant Reformation)
  • Contributed to the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment
• Magnetic compass and astrolabe improved maritime navigation
  • Enabled longer voyages and exploration of new trade routes
  • Contributed to European exploration and colonization of the Americas
• Caravel and galleon ships designed for long-distance ocean voyages
  • Caravels were small, maneuverable ships used for exploration (Christopher Columbus)
  • Galleons were larger, armed ships used for trade and warfare
• Lateen sails and sternpost rudders improved ship maneuverability and control

Cultural Exchanges and Religious Developments

• Islamic empires (Ottoman, Safavid, Mughal) fostered cultural and intellectual exchanges
  • Ottoman Empire's millet system allowed for religious diversity and cultural autonomy
  • Mughal Empire's Akbar promoted religious tolerance and cultural synthesis (Din-i Ilahi)
• Protestant Reformation challenged the authority of the Catholic Church
  • Martin Luther's 95 Theses criticized Church practices and doctrines
  • John Calvin's teachings emphasized predestination and the sovereignty of God
• Catholic Counter-Reformation sought to reform the Church and combat Protestantism
  • Council of Trent clarified Church doctrines and practices
  • Jesuits established missions and schools to spread Catholicism worldwide
• Syncretism blended indigenous and foreign religious beliefs and practices
  • Vodun in West Africa combined African traditional religions with Christianity
  • Sikhism in India blended elements of Hinduism and Islam
• Scientific Revolution challenged traditional beliefs and promoted empirical observation and experimentation
  • Copernican heliocentric model challenged Ptolemaic geocentric view of the universe
  • Isaac Newton's laws of motion and universal gravitation provided a mathematical framework for understanding the natural world
• Enlightenment promoted reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority
  • John Locke's ideas on natural rights and government by consent influenced political revolutions
  • Montesquieu's separation of powers and checks and balances influenced the U.S. Constitution

Social and Political Transformations

• Absolute monarchies emerged in Europe (Louis XIV of France, Peter the Great of Russia)
  • Centralized power and authority in the hands of the monarch
  • Developed bureaucracies and standing armies to maintain control
• European society divided into distinct social classes (nobility, clergy, commoners)
  • Nobility held political power and social privileges
  • Commoners bore the burden of taxes and labor
• Atlantic slave trade transformed societies in Africa and the Americas
  • African kingdoms (Kongo, Oyo) participated in and were disrupted by the slave trade
  • Plantation system in the Americas relied on enslaved African labor
• Hacienda system in Spanish America utilized indigenous and mestizo labor
• Putting-out system in Europe involved the production of goods by rural households for urban merchants
• Qing Dynasty in China implemented the queue hairstyle and Manchu dress codes to assert authority
• Tokugawa shogunate in Japan imposed strict social hierarchy and isolation from foreign influence

Conflicts and Warfare

• Thirty Years' War (1618-1648) was a religious and political conflict in Europe
  • Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended the war and established the principle of state sovereignty
  • Decline of the Holy Roman Empire and rise of France as a dominant power
• Ottoman-Habsburg wars (Battle of Vienna, 1683) marked the limit of Ottoman expansion in Europe
• Mughal-Maratha wars in India challenged Mughal authority and contributed to the empire's decline
• Seven Years' War (1756-1763) was a global conflict involving European powers and their colonies
  • British victory over France established British dominance in North America and India
• Slave revolts and resistance challenged the institution of slavery in the Americas
  • Stono Rebellion (1739) in South Carolina was the largest slave revolt in British North America
  • Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) led to the establishment of the first independent black republic

Legacy and Impact on Modern World

• European colonization of the Americas had lasting impacts on indigenous populations and global power dynamics
  • Decimation of native populations due to disease, warfare, and exploitation
  • Establishment of European settler colonies and displacement of indigenous peoples
• Atlantic slave trade had long-term consequences for Africa and the African diaspora
  • Depopulation and political instability in West and Central Africa
  • Formation of African diaspora communities in the Americas
  • Racism and racial hierarchies that persist to the present day
• Columbian Exchange transformed global ecosystems, agriculture, and diets
  • Introduction of New World crops (maize, potatoes) to Europe, Africa, and Asia
  • Spread of Old World livestock (horses, cattle) to the Americas
• Globalization of trade and economic systems laid the foundations for modern capitalism
  • Joint-stock companies and banking systems facilitated global commerce and investment
  • Mercantilism and colonial exploitation contributed to unequal economic development
• Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment laid the intellectual foundations for modern science and political thought
  • Emphasis on empirical observation, experimentation, and rational inquiry
  • Ideas of natural rights, consent of the governed, and separation of powers
• Religious transformations (Protestant Reformation, spread of Islam) continue to shape global religious landscapes
  • Division of Western Christianity into Protestant and Catholic branches
  • Expansion of Islam in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East
• European languages (English, French, Spanish) became global languages due to colonization and trade
• Modern borders and nation-states in Africa, Asia, and the Americas shaped by colonial legacies